TAXONOMY & NOMENCLATURE
(Alter 2004) (Fernando et al. 2003) (Fleischer et al 2001) (Gheerbrant et al 1996, 2009) (Nikaido 2003) (Palombo and Villa 2001) (Poulakakis et al 2006) (Rohland et al 2007 (Shoshani 1992, 2006) (Thenius 1990) (Yang 1996)
Describer: Order established = Illiger (1811). Family describer = Gray
(1821). Revised by Maglio (1973). The Asian Elephant (Elephas) = Linnaeus
(1758).
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Proboscidea
Family: Elephantidae Subtribe: Elephantina Genus:Elephas Species:Elephas maximus (Asian elephant) Subspecies:E. m. maximus (Sri Lankan Asian elephant) Subspecies: E. m. indicus (mainland Asian elephant) Subspecies:E. m. sumatranus
(Sumatran Asian elephant) Subtribe: Loxodontina Genus:Loxodonta Species:Loxodonta africana Subspecies:Loxodonta africana africana (bush or savannah elephant) Subspecies:Loxodonta africana cyclotis (forest elephant)
Taxonomic History and Nomenclature
Proposed Subspecies
"E. m. borneensis" (Borneo pygmy elephant) - subspecies status proposed
Originally considered a distinct subspecies
Later believed to be feral E. m. sumatranus or E. m. indicus
Recent studies indicate it is genetically distinct and has lived on Borneo for up to 30,000 years (Fernando 2003)
Formal recognition as a subspecies awaits a detailed morphological analysis
Common Names
Elephant - from Latin elephantus from Greek elephant meaning "elephant, ivory"
(perhaps of Hamitic origin) (Gove 1971)
Gajah - Sri Lankan word for elephant, from Sanskrit gaja meaning elephant
(Kahl & Santiapillai 2004)
Gaja-sastre ("elephant knowledge")
is an ancient text on the science of elephants, written around 600-500 BCE
Hathi - Hindustani word for elephant, from Sanskrit hastin or hasta meaning "hand, trunk" (Gove 1971)
Scientific Name
Elephas - from Latin elephantus from Greek elephant-, elephas meaning "elephant, ivory" (perhaps of Hamitic origin) (Gove 1971)
Maximus - Latin maximus meaning "greatest"
(superlative of magnus "great, large") (Gove 1971)
Phylogeny
First elephant-like animals discovered in Moroccan rocks
(Gheerbrant 1996, 2009)
55 million year-old Phosphatherium weighed 15 kg (33 lbs)
60 million year-old Eritherium weighed 4 to 5 kg (8.8 to 11 lbs)
Over time, there have been 10 or 11 families in the Order Proboscidea
Have tusks, modified upper lips and noses,
Evolutionary trend for size increase from dog-sized to over 4 meters (13 ft.)
Mastodons diverged from elephant family 24 to 28 million years ago
Belong to a separate family only distantly related to modern elephants
Found in Europe, Greece, North America and Central America
Molecular data: African elephants separate from Asian elephants and mammoths 7.6 million years ago
New discovery: earliest Asian elephants found in 6.7–5.2 million-year-old rocks in Kenya
Mammoths (Mammuthus) belong to an extinct genera of the elephant family
Widespread in Europe, northern Asia, North America and central Mexico, but not South America
DNA reveals mammoths closer relationship to Asian elephants than to African elephants
The woolly mammoth (M. primigenius) occupied Europe, British Isles, northern Asia, and as far south as Kansas in the United States
After arriving in North America, some populations returned to Asia
The Columbian mammoths (M. columbi) spread throughout North America into Central America
A dwarf form of the Columbian mammoth survived on the Channel Islands of California
Extinct about the time of early human contact 12,000 to 13,000 years ago
Extinct pygmy mammoth skeletons found on Mediterranean island of Crete
and Sardinia
DNA and morphology shows closer relationship to Mammuthus than to Elephas
Modern genera Loxodonta and Elephas both originated in East Africa
Loxodonta migrated throughout Africa
Elephas migrated to Asia and Eurasia
Extinct pygmy elephants on islands of Cyprus and Tilos islands in Mediterranean
(Poulakakis et al 2006)
DNA more like modern Elephas
Not known if pygmy elephants on Sicily and Malta more like mammoths or modern elephants
Elephants' closest living relatives: hyrax, sea cows, golden moles
Grouped into proposed new taxon which originated in Africa, Afrotheria, together with aardvarks, elephant shrews, tenrecs
Close relationships based on molecular evidence, shared anatomy, earth history of plate tectonics
DISTRIBUTION & HABITAT
(Kurt 1990) (Santiapillai & Jackson 1990) (Sukumar 1989, 2008)
Indian subcontinent (India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh)
Continental Southeast Asia (China, Myanmar, Thailand, Kampuchea, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia)
Asian islands (Andaman Islands, Sri Lanka, Sumatra, Borneo)
Presently occupy only 15% of historic range
India has 60% of remaining wild populations
E. m. borneensis' occupied Borneo
in prehistoric times
- not imported from India
Habitat
Primary habitat types
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests
Move through vegetation zones seasonally; often found along rivers in dry months
In Southern India: hilly dry scrub through deciduous forest to wet evergreen forest
Northeastern India and Burma: swampy grasslands on river floodplains; moist deciduous forest on Himalayan slopes
Sri Lanka: mainly dry deciduous woodland, scrub, grassland, and marshes; small population in rainforest
India's Andaman Islands: swim across sea between various islands
Prefer transitional zones between two ecological communities (forests and grasslands)
Require more access to shade than African elephants
Inhabit more low visibility habitats compared to African elephants
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
(Alter 2004)(Fowler & Makata 2006) (Hutchinson et al 2006)(Manoussaki el al 2007) (Mariappa 1986) (Shosani1992)
(Shoshani & Eisenberg 1982)
(Sukumar 1989) (Yokoyama et al 2005)
Body Weight:
2000-5500 kg. (4,500-12,000 lbs.)
Largest living land mammal (several whales are larger)
Body Length:
5.5-6.5 m. (18-21 ft.)
Tail Length:
1.2-1.5 m. (4-5 ft.)
Tail of Elephas m. boreensis longer than other subspecies - almost touches the ground
Shoulder Height:
Female: 2.24 m. (8 ft.)
Male: 3.2 m. (10 ft.)
A bull displayed at the Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History measured 4 m (13 ft.) at the shoulder
Shoulder height = forefoot circumference X 2
General
All elephants have versatile proboscis or trunk, columnar legs, thick skin (pachydermous), and sparse patches of hair
Smaller than African elephants
Convex or level back vs more concave in African elephant
Highest point is at head vs at shoulder in African elephant
Sri Lankan subspecies is the largest
Skin
Skin has several textures depending according to location
on body
Bumpy skin on most of body
Smooth skin on ears, lips, eyelids, genitalia
Rough texture isn't found in skin of other mammals
Generally smoother than the African Elephant’s
Thick skin - protects against insect bites and weather
Usually gray. May have white or pink blotches on ears, trunk, head or neck
Sumatran elephants lightest in color and have least depigmentation (loss of color).
Sri Lankan elephants darkest and have distinct depigmentation
Frequently bathe with water, mud or soil to control body temperature
Hair and Nails
Number of nails don't match number of digits
Asian elephants: usually 5 nails on forefeet and 4 to 5 nails on hind feet.
African species: typically 4 to 5 nails on forefeet and 3, 4, or 5 on hind feet
Infants have "downy" reddish or black hair later replaced by short soft bristles
Long soft hairs surround ear openings and lower lip
Short tactile hairs on trunk
Asians generally harrier than African elephants
Skeleton
Equals about 15% body weight
Skull weight equals about 52 kg. (115 lbs.); extensive honeycomb-like spaces reduce skull's weight
Very short neck brings head close to the center of gravity. Cannot turn head side to side
Sumatran elephant has 20 sets of ribs, others subspecies have 19 (last 4 are floating)
African Elephant has 21 sets of ribs
Side-to-side movement of limbs from the center of the body restricted.
Increases stability and prevents falls, which can be fatal.
Feet rest on pads of shock-absorbent, elastic connective tissue, which help support weight
34 tail vertebrae
33 in African elephants
Teeth
Chewing surfaces of teeth are closed, compressed loops; those of African Elephant are diamond-shaped
Teeth have a high crown with rasp-like surface, which allows them to chew high fiber materials.
26 teeth over lifetime: 2 upper incisors (tusks), 12 deciduous premolars, 12 molars. No canines.
Six sets of 4 molars molars during lifetime
Average replacement ages are at 1.5 to 2 years, 6 years, 8 to 10 years, 20 to 25 years and at 50 to 6 0 years.
The final set is usually lost between 60 and 70 years of age. (Eltringham,1991, p.40).
Because the teeth change in size and shape throughout life, age of an individual can be estimated
New molars do not erupt vertically as in most mammals, but grow in from behind, pushing the old worn-out teeth forward and out.
A single molar can weigh over 5 kg (11 lbs).
Tusks
Function: dig for water, salt or rocks, debark trees, serve as weapons, protection or rests for the trunk, move branches
Favors either left or right tusk . One tusk usually shows more wear than the other.
Elephant incisors develop into
tushes and tusks
Tushes barely extend past the mouth; replaced by permanent tusks
Permanent tusks in place by 6 to 12 mos; grow about 17 cm (7 in. )/yr. depending on nutrition
Large tusks up to 1.8 m (5.9 ft); slimmer and straighter than African's
Longest tusk on record: 3 meters (119 in.).
Heaviest weighed 39 kg. (86 lbs)
Females are tuskless, or have tushes
Proportion of tuskless males varies widely (0 to 100%). They are called "makhnas."
Both male and female African elephants usually have tusks
Tusk microstructure seen in cross section ("Schreger lines") allow identification of various elephant taxa
Trunk
Technical term is “proboscis," meaning "before the mouth" (Greek)
Tool for lifting, smelling, spraying dust, grass, and water on body
Used to transfer water to mouth, not used like a drinking straw
Also used for sound production, courtship, calf assurance during nursing, behavioral signals and displays
More "rings" (annulations) than in African Elephant's and perhaps is more extendable
Formed by a fusion of the nose and upper lip
One prehensile “finger” at tip of trunk (mammoths had one also); African elephant has two "fingers"
Three types of tactile receptors at tip; most sensitive part of the trunk
Contains as many as 150,000 muscle units
Muscle masses aligned in radial, longitudinal, and oblique layers for extraordinary flexibility
Tongues of vertebrates, arms of octopus and tentacles of squid have similar flexibility
70% of air inhaled is through the trunk, the rest comes through the mouth.
Uses trunk to transfer water to mouth, not used for drinking;can hold up to 5 liters (1.3 gal) water
Uses trunk to transfer chemical pheromones to receptors in the mouth
Trunk tip's contain nerve endings with heightened sensitivity to vibrations
When placing trunk tip on ground, can detect vibrations of running animals
Ears
Smaller than the African elephant's.
E.m. borneensis has larger outer ear (pinna) than other subspecies
Thermo regulation - positive correlation between the number of times an elephant flaps its ears and air temperature.
Cochlea's curved structure may facilitate sensitivity to low frequencies.
Can hear approximately 8Hz. – 12 kHz
For comparison: humans hear up to 19kHz and dogs to 44 kHz
Represent best sensitivity of all mammals so far tested (Langbauer 2000)
May be able to detect seismic vibrations from thunderstorms, animal hooves through feet
Glands
Two mammary glands produce milk that is 83.82% water, 11.82% albuminoids and sugar, 3.89% fat and 0.47% ash or mineral matter.
Cheek (temporal) glands located midway between eyes and ears. Drain during times of excitement such as fighting, mating or in musth
(once or twice a year)
Produce pheromones that stimulate other elephants' behavior
Present in both males and females; much more active in males
Tear ducts are vestigial. Herderian glands lubricate the eyes.
Internal Organs
Weight of heart 19 kg (42 lbs); about 0.5 % of body weight. Unique shape like the African Elephant with bifed apex and paired venae cavae
Heart rate 28 beats per minute standing; 35 lying down
Rate of respiration 4-12 per minute
Brain weight 5.5 kg (12 lbs). Large temporal lobes indicate heightened memory capabilities. Larger than humans', relative to body size
Absence of gall bladder (have low-fat diet)
Pancreas does not come in contact with spleen, unlike most animals.
Testes located near kidneys inside abdomen; heat-sensitive sperm ok because of elephant's lower body temperature
Lungs attached to diaphragm; typically breathe using diaphragm rather than expansion of rib cage
Eyesight
Eye is small in relation to body size
Ability to see color - probably similar to humans who are color blind
Total visual field is a sweep of 313° out of 360° with a 47° blind spot (compared to 357° visual field for a horse)
No true tear ducts
Good in dull light, considerably reduced in bright light
Sexual Dimorphism
Males have large trunk bases, bulges below and in front of eyes, and swelling above the eyes. Females have narrower trunk bases and lack prominent bulge above eyes
Male back is more convex and curves more gradually into hindquarters; female's is straighter and "boxier" with vertical hindquarters.
Males considerably larger than females of same ages.
Other Physical Characteristics
Folds in brain resemble that of humans and porpoises
Highly sensitive Jacobson's organ on roof of mouth used for detecting sex pheromones
BEHAVIOR & ECOLOGY
(Eltringham 1991) (Fernando and Lande 2000) (Hart et al 2001) (McKay 1973) (Moss 1990) (Moss et al 2011) (O'Connell-Rodwell 2001)
(Payne & Langbauer 1992)(Poole 1996) (Pringle 2008) (Rasmussen and Krishnamurthy 2000) (Santipelli &Suprahman 1986) (Schulte 2006)(Shoshani & Eisenberg 1982) (Sukumar 1989)
Activity Cycle
In a study of Asian Elephants at Lahugala Tank, males were recorded as having the following activity cycle:
91.1% = Feeding
5.4% = Walking
1.4% = Resting
1.8% = Bathing
0.1% = Drinking
0.2% = All other activities
Another study at Lahagula Tank records the following activity cycle of solitary males:
93.5% = Feeding
1.9% = Walking
0.3% = Contact promoting
3.3% = Play/Aggression
1.0% = All other activities
Female elephant herds spend 70-90% of time feeding.
Male activity shows one peak at around 8 am and another between 4-5 pm. Female herds peak around 10 am and then later between 3:30 and 6 pm.
In a study at Ceylon's Wilpattu National Park
for
individuals described as secretive and shy
Feeding is intermittent during 24 hour period
Drinking is typically early evening and just before daybreak
Long distance travel usually accomplished at night
Territory Size
No evidence of territoriality
Home range size usually small, similar to African Elephants (approx. 14-52 sq.km)
Shifts locale with wet/dry season
Availability of resources (water, food, mates) and human presence all influence home range size
Female groups may overlap and coordinate migrations
Social Groups
Highly social animals with extremely complex behaviors; highly developed (Moss et al 2011):
Emphathetic behavior
Problem solving and tool use
Communications between individuals
A matriarch, typically the eldest female, heads a related group of females.
Study of female groups's genetics at Ruhuna National Park in Sri Lanka show all individuals related to a single female
Herds consist of about 8-12 individuals, but sizes can vary. (African Elephant groups: 10 to 20 individuals)
Life centers around the calves in both African and Asian elephant societies.
Females share equally in the care of the young.
Teenage males leave natal herd & often form bachelor groups
Adult male typically described as solitary; no close bonds with other independent males; spend time in families only when following females in estrus
New studies show the males form loose associations
Hierarchy
Males in musth are dominant to nonmusth males
Teenage Asian elephants (15-20 years) go through a juvenile (moda) musth in which they secrete a sweet odor
Bulls in musth once or twice a year may display aggressive behavior
Having a male in musth decreases aggressive behavior of other males
Aggressive behaviors include: spreading ears; raising head with jaw "tucked in", mock charging, abrupt head shake which makes ears flap, throwing objects in direction of opponent
Elephant charge: up to 40 km/hr (25mph)
Play
Male calves are more likely to leave mothers to play; engage in head sparring, mounting, charging, shoving, and chasing
Female calves play chasing and running games, throw sticks, and may “attack” imaginary enemies
Both sexes play rough and tumble games, clamber onto each other
Communication
Vocal Cues
Large repertoire of vocalizations, including:
Low frequency, long distance calls to maintain contact between roving individuals or groups
Close range, high pitched calls indicate mood
Loud trumpeting indicates alarm, surprise
Low snorts signal changes in immediate environment, alerting herd
Tactile Cues
Family members often touch while standing; may rub with a foot or slap with the trunk
Trunks are used in greeting: A lower-ranking animal will insert its trunk tip into the other’s mouth
Trunk may be held out to an approaching elephant as a greeting
Trunk is also used in caressing, twining, wrestling, and checking reproductive status
Mothers may guide their calf by gripping its tail
Visual Cues
Signal for hormonal state:
Bull's musth walk - head erect, ears wide, ear waves of one ear, a low pulsing growl
Trunk curling and uncurling
Urine dribble
Cow's estrous walk - looking back over shoulder as walk away
Signals for apprehension/submission
Jaw out, touching one's own temporal gland or face
Trunk twitching back and forth
Swaying side to side
Backing into side of more dominant animal
Olfaction/Scent Marking
Rely heavily on long lasting chemical cues, which travel over short or long distances
Lift trunks to detect wind-borne scents for first clues to sources of danger
Survival depends on reading scents of landscapes, pathways, mineral and salt sources, waterholes
Even after long separations, chemical cues help reestablish kin and friendship bonds
Sniff breath, mouths, temporal glands, genitals, urine and dung to determine emotional and physiological states of others
Urine alone contains several thousand chemical compounds packed with messages
Sex pheromones allow determination of fitness and location of opposite sex
Other senses
Information from environment via low frequency ground vibrations may be first detected by elephant's feet and trunk tip
Distant thunderstorms, footsteps of running animals, vocalizations, that travel through ground
Locomotion
Move with one basic gait, known as the rack or pace (three feet are on the ground most of the time); one foot always on ground
Normal walking speed 2.5-3.7 mph (4-6 km/hr). Charging speed can reach 15.2 mph (6.8 meters/sec) (Hutchinson 2006)
Move very slowly while feeding, or walk quickly. Juveniles may run when playing, but adults only run in flight or attack.
Swim readily at rate of 1.3 mph (2 km/hr). Can stay afloat for up to 6 hours and cover distances of 30 miles (48 km) at a stretch
Can not jump; even a shallow ditch poses a barrier
Can not trot, canter, or gallop
Tool Use
May use branches and plant fronds to swat flies, dislodge parasites, scratch an itch
Known to drop boulders on fences to destroy them or to cut off electricity
Interspecies Interaction
Do not appear frightened by other animals; usually ignore them
Confrontations with Indian rhinoceros probably very rare in wild, but have occurred with domestic elephants that have been ridden into rhino's territory
Mutualistic relationship with some species of birds, such as egrets and piapiac.
Birds use elephants as a vantage point to spot prey; pick off ticks or lice attached to the elephant.
Host several parasites, including louse, warble flies, mosquitoes and leeches
Prodigious amounts of dung disperses many seeds and helps enrich soils
Dung beetles and termites carry dung underground
Like the African Elephant, function in role of ecosystem "engineer"
and as a keystone species
Maintain trails and open access to water for other species
Create microhabitats by shredding trees for small vertebrate species such as lizards
Uproot small trees (which would invade open grassland areas, shifting habitat to new forests)
Enhances habitat for other grazing animals and their predators
Female urine contains a sex pheromone that increases before ovulation (African Elephant's pheromone differs)
Female emits loud infrasonic call when in estrus to attract males
Important because receptive time may last one day; calls persist for 5 days
Audible up to 4 km (2.4 miles) away
Bulls sniff female genitals and urine, place trunk tip into mouth:
Jacobson's organ on roof of mouth detects presence of the sex pheromone
Prior to copulation, wrestle with intertwined trunks, bite each other’s necks, male attempts mounting
Females exercise some choice in mates by running away and/or not standing still
Females in estrus prefer breeding with males in musth
Reproduction
Mounts last about 30 seconds
Mating and births occur any time during year; may peak during heavy rains in some regions
In captivity, estrus cycle lasts 13 to 14 weeks (if female is not pregnant)
Females who have conceived or with young may have 4 - 5 years between estrus cycles
Only one in five follicular cycles, each lasting 2-3 weeks, produce a fertile egg
Males can breed at any time, not only when in musth (Hindu for "intoxicated")
Musth levels of testosterone in male up to 20 times higher than normal
Musth lasts about 4 months in wild males
Females prefer musth males
Reproductive Rate:
Most females give birth for the first time at 16-17 years.
In optimal habitats, calving intervals are 2.5-4 years. In less favorable conditions, calving intervals are 5-8 years.
Cows can calve past age 50. Two captive elephants (Meennakshi and Tara) calved at 54 and 62 years, respectively.
Gestation
Lasts 18-22 months, the longest gestation period of any mammal
Life Stages
Birth
Litter size: Usually one calf; rarely twins (structure of uterus allows births several weeks apart)
Weight: 75-115kg (165-254 lbs)
Height: 75-100 cm (2.5-3.5 ft)
Calves are very hairy compared to adults. Hairier than African elephant calves.
Infant (< 1 year old)
Infants may have many female juvenile helpers - allomothers or "aunties" (great survival advantage)
Helpers allow mother to feed and rest; important for lactation
Can stand on feet shortly after birth
Follow the mother in her daily routines within a few days
During first three months develop motor skills
Females attracted to young calves
Juvenile
Females are attracted to young calves; often minister to their needs so mothers can spend more time feeding and resting, which are important for lactation
Age of weaning 18 months to 3 years or longer;
May be forced to wean when younger sibling is born.
Around age of weaning, differences in sexes begin to appear
Females strengthen bonds with family
Males become more independent, leaving family for longer periods to feed, explore or play
Initial period of rapid growth slows at about 5 years; decline in growth rate is greater for females than for males
Females care for young of both sexes during 10-15 years of development until sexual maturity
Subadult
Can be difficult to distinguish from juveniles
No fixed age of puberty; may depend on available nutrition
Males often seen away from herds
Penis large, although subadult males are not reproductively active
Females may exhibit swelling of mammae
Adult
Age of sexual maturity varies depending on nutrition
Bulls 14-15 (as early as 9) years
Cows minimum age to breeding 14-15 years; usuall 18-20 (Shoshani & Eisenberg 1982; Sukumar 1989)
Bulls may not mate until late teens or twenties due to social hierarchy
Males are distinguishable by enlargement of head and distinct penis sheath; no testicles visible
Females and males often hard to distinguish because female's clitoris is large
Females have square backs
Males continue to grow at continuous slow rate. Female growth plateaus between 15 and 30 years
Males in wild enter musth around age 30
Longevity
Comparable to human longevity
May live 60-70 years in the wild. Over 80 years in captivity
Mortality
Calves preyed upon by lions, hyaenas, tigers
Complications of calving
Drought; accidental falls
Bulls fighting in musth
Killed by humans defending their crops or poaching
Mortality in bulls much higher than in cows, mostly due to poaching and fighting
May starve to death in old age when the last of their teeth falls or worn out
2000 B.C. First trained for war by peoples of the Indus Valley. Not terribly effective due to tendency to retreat when assaulted.
1796 First Asian elephant brought to North America
1880 First North American captive elephant was born in Philadelphia, PA.
Named Columbia, her parents were part of Cooper and Bailey Circus
1979 Cross
between African and Asian elephants at Chester Zoo, England
Female Asian was bred by a male African
Calf only survived 10 days
1985 Raja, a captive male elephant with extremely long tusks, declared a national treasure in Sri Lanka
Currently (as of 2000) 285 Asian elephants in North American facilities and 16,000 world-wide
13,000-16,500 employed throughout Asia in logging, tourism, transportation industries, and religious ceremonies
Outstanding qualities: intelligence, strength, flexibility, low maintenance costs, and minimal impact on environment.
Conservation problems
in Asia
Lack of documentation of captive elephants (important for breeding)
Hesitancy to breed working elephants due to loss of work from pregnant females
Recent curtailment of logging has left many "unemployed" elephant beggars
Genetic survival of African and Asian elephants may depend on successful captive breeding programs
General challenges in captive breeding include:
Inability to keep breeding-age bulls due to aggression during musth
Space requirements (American Zoological Association): 167.2 sq. m (1800 sq. ft.) for single adult outdoors; 83.6 sq m (900 sq. ft.) for each additional elephant
Lack of knowledge of elephant's estrous cycle
Dietary deficiencies
Rejection of calves by mothers due to lack of socialization
CONSERVATION AND POPULATION STATUS
(Asian Nature Conservation Foundation 2008) (Blake & Hedges 2004) (Choudhury et al. 2008) (Fernando 2003) (Gopala et al. 2011) (Santiapillai & Jackson 1990)
(Sukumar 1989, 2003 , 2008)
Population Status
Population estimates of Asian elephants:
41,410-52,345 animals (Sukumar 2003)
By comparison, African elephants estimated at 600,000
Estimated population sizes by region:
Southern India 10,500-14,500
All of India 25,000
Myanmar: 4000-5000
Thailand: 3000-3700 (declining)
Sri Lanka: 3000 +
Indonesia's Sumatra: 3000+ (declining)
Peninsular Malaysia: 1250-1466 (stable) and 1100-1600
Borneo: 1000
Laos: 780-1200
Bhutan: 400-600
Cambodia: 250-600
China (only southern Yunan): 200-250
Bangladesh: 196-227
Nepal: 100-170
Vietnam: 76-94
Overall, populations believed to be decreasing (Choudhury et al. 2008)
IUCN Status: Endangered A2C(version 3.1)
(2008) (Explanation: Reduction in population size greater than or equal to 50 % over three generations because of decline in habitat)
IUCN Status: The Sumatran elephant subspecies is now Critically Endangered (Gopala et al. 2011)
Over 69% of this elephants potential habitat has been lost in one generation (25 years); this pattern is expected to continue
1972 Indian Wildlife Protection Act
1976 Listed as Endangered
1989 CITES ( Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora) approves an international ban on ivory. Not likely to provide much benefit to Asian elephants as poaching is minor problem
1997 CITES established MIKE (Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants) to systematically collect data on elephant population trends. 15 sites in South Asia and 16 in Southeast Asia have been selected for surveying
1998 World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Asian Rhino and Elephant Action Strategy (AREAS) recommends sites for conservation action: sets conservation priorities and resource allocations
Considered a "flagship" species ( chosen to represent an environmental cause) and a "keystone" species (a species whose presence is vital to the ecosystem, as is the keystone in an arch)
Formal recognition of E.m. boreensis as distinct subspecies elevates their conservation importance and ESU's (evolutionary significant units)
Threats to survival
Primary threat due is habitat loss
and fragmentation
Agriculture - humans use land for coffee, tea, rubber, and teak farming, slash-and burn cultivation
Aquaculture in coastal wetlands
Mining of iron ore
Development programs, roads
Environmental devastation from wars
Exploding human populations and resulting conflicts with elephant populations
Poaching, although to a lesser extent than the African elephant.
